Introduction

Before learning how to translate a text from Middle to Modern English, let’s have an introduction of Middle English. Middle English was spoken and written in England roughly between the 12th and 15th centuries, following the Norman Conquest of 1066 and preceding the emergence of Early Modern English. This period saw significant linguistic evolution due to the blending of Old English with Norman French and Latin influences.

Middle English literature encompasses a diverse range of genres, including poetry, prose, drama, and religious texts. Some major works include: “The Canterbury Tales”, “Sir Gawain and the Green Knight”, “Piers Plowman” etc.

Even though Modern English is a newer version of Middle English, most people today still find it hard to understand Middle English. Modern English is different from middle English due to several key developments and changes that have occurred over time. Here’s a comparison highlighting the differences:

1. Grammatical Simplification

Middle English had a more complex grammatical system with inflections for case, number, and gender. In Middle English, verb conjugation (Verb conjugation refers to the alteration of a verb’s form to indicate tense, mood, aspect, person, number, or voice.) was more complex compared to Modern English. Middle English verbs underwent inflection to indicate tense, person, and number.  Over time, Modern English has simplified this system with fewer verb endings and a more consistent structure. For instance;

In Middle English, Present tense of the verb “loven” (to love):

• • “Ich love” (I love)
  • “Thou lovest” (You love)
  • “He/she loveth” (He/she loves)
  • “We loven” (We love)
  • “Ye loven” (You love)
  • “They loven” (They love)

Middle English verbs also had different endings for past tense forms. For example, Past tense of the verb “loven”:

• • “Ich lovede” (I loved)
  • “Thou lovedest” (You loved)
  • “He/she lovede” (He/she loved)
  • “We loveden” (We loved)
  • “Ye loveden” (You loved)
  • “They loveden” (They loved)

In Modern English most verbs have the same form regardless of the subject, with the addition of auxiliary verbs to indicate tense and aspect. For example, Present tense of the verb “love”:

• • “I love”
  • “You love”
  • “He/she loves”
  • “We love”
  • “You love”
  • “They love”

Past tense of the verb “love”:

• • “I loved”
  • “You loved”
  • “He/she loved”
  • “We loved”
  • “You loved”
  • “They loved”

2. Standardization of Syntax

Middle English had a more fluid word order, allowing for greater variation in the arrangement of words within a sentence. Word order was often influenced by emphasis, rhythm, or poetic considerations rather than strict grammatical rules. For instance, “I love thee” or “Thee love I”. Both mean “I love you.” Another example is “Came the knight riding” (The knight came riding.) Here, the verb “came” precedes the subject “the knight” for emphasis or poetic effect.

Modern English has a more rigid word order, typically following the subject-verb-object (SVO) pattern in declarative sentences. Word order plays a crucial role in conveying meaning and grammatical relationships. For instance, “The cat chased the mouse” – In Modern English, the typical word order is subject-verb-object (SVO), where “the cat” (subject) performs the action “chased” (verb) on “the mouse” (object). Changing the word order, such as “The mouse chased the cat,” alters the meaning of the sentence.

3. Expansion of Vocabulary

Middle English vocabulary was heavily influenced by Old English, Norse, French, and Latin. Many words have different meanings or usage compared to Modern English.

Modern English has significantly expanded its vocabulary through borrowings from other languages, technological advancements, and cultural changes. While many words from Middle English are still in use today, Modern English has incorporated new terms and expressions to reflect contemporary realities.

4. Simplified Spelling

Middle English had a more variable and inconsistent spelling system compared to Modern English. The standardization of spelling conventions during the Early Modern English period helped to simplify and regularize the spelling of words.

5. Phonological Changes

Modern English has undergone significant phonological changes, including the Great Vowel Shift, which occurred during the transition from Middle English to Early Modern English. These changes altered the pronunciation of vowels and contributed to the development of the phonological system of Modern English.Some of these changes are:

• Changes in Vowels: Long vowels lost their length and became diphthongs (two-part sounds), while short vowels also changed in both pronunciation and spelling. Short vowels underwent further changes, like the loss of the final unstressed “e” in words. Some vowels changed their pronunciation, like “a” becoming “o” before certain consonants, as in “all” or “fall.”
• Changes in Consonants: New consonant sounds were added, like the “ng” sound in “sing.” Some sounds disappeared in certain contexts, like the “gh” sound after vowels, as in “night.” Other changes included losing sounds before certain consonants, like the “l” in “half” or “palm.”
• Changes in Diphthongs: Diphthongs, which are combinations of two vowel sounds, tended to become simpler over time. New diphthongs emerged, like “oo” in words like “pure” or “mute,” or “ew” in words like “new” or “glue.”
• Changes in Prosody: (Prosody refers to the study of the rhythms and sounds of language.) There were changes in how people stressed words and in the pitch of their voice in sentences. Questions often had rising pitch, while statements had falling pitch. People tended to stress the first syllable of words more often, and there were many different ways to pronounce words.

Examples of converting Middle English texts into Modern English through translation and paraphrasing:

Example 1

Whan that Aprille with his shoures soote,

The droghte of March hath perced to the roote,

And bathed every veyne in swich licóur

Of which vertú engendred is the flour;

Whan Zephirus eek with his swete breeeth

Inspired hath in every holt and heeth

The tendre croppes, and the yonge sonne

Hath in the Ram his halfe cours y-ronne,

And smale foweles makes melodye,

That slepen at the nyght with open ye,

So priketh hem Nature in hir corages,

Thanne longen folk to goon on pilgrimages,

And palmeres for to seken straunge strondes,

The quoted lines are from the “Prologue to the Canterbury Tales,” authored by Geoffrey Chaucer, widely regarded as the pioneer of English literature. This prologue sets the stage for the main narrative and offers rich descriptions of the characters embarking on the pilgrimage. Chaucer meticulously portrays the time, setting, and the diverse group of pilgrims, providing vivid depictions of their appearances, actions, and societal standing.

Translation:

“When April with its sweet showers

Has pierced the drought of March to the root,

And bathed every vein in such moisture

By which power is generated in the flower;

When Zephyrus also with his sweet breath

Inspired has in every wood and heath

The tender crops, and the young sun

Has in the Ram half his course run,

And small birds make melody,

That sleep at night with open eye,

So nature stimulates them in their hearts,

Then people long to go on pilgrimages,

And pilgrims to seek strange shores.

Paraphrase:

The opening 13 lines of the ‘General Prologue to the Canterbury Tales’ beautifully capture the arrival of spring and its transformative influence on both the natural world and human emotions. They convey feelings of rejuvenation, vitality, and wanderlust—the yearning for exploration—that accompany the onset of spring. The poet describes how when April arrives with its gentle showers, it replenishes the earth after the dryness of March, bringing new life to the land. The rain fills every part of the earth with its life-giving essence and nurtures it, giving rise to flowers that symbolize fresh starts and development. The introduction of Zephyrus, the God of the west wind, highlights the rejuvenating effect of spring on nature, as he spreads his sweet fragrance into budding plants throughout the woods and meadows. The mention of the young sun having already completed half of its journey through the zodiac sign of Aries confirms that it’s now mid-spring. Just like how birds sing happily even when they’re resting, nature sparks a desire within them. Similarly, people feel a strong urge to go on adventures, much like pilgrims seeking new and exciting places to explore. This highlights the close connection between humans and nature and our shared longing for new experiences.

Example 2

In a summer season · when soft was the sun,

I clothed myself in a cloak as I shepherd were,

Habit like a hermit’s · unholy in works,

And went wide in the world · wonders to hear.

But on a May morning · on Malvern hills,

A marvel befell me · of fairy, methought.

I was weary with wandering · and went me to rest

Under a broad bank · by a brook’s side,

And as I lay and leaned over · and looked into the waters

I fell into a sleep · for it sounded so merry.

Then began I to dream · a marvellous dream,

That I was in a wilderness · wist I not where.

As I looked to the east · right into the sun,

I saw a tower on a toft · worthily built;

A deep dale beneath · a dungeon therein,

With deep ditches and dark · and dreadful of sight

A fair field full of folk · found I in between,

Of all manner of men · the rich and the poor,

Working and wandering · as the world asketh.

This passage is from the Prologue of Piers Plowman, a Middle English allegorical poem by William Langland, written in the 14th century. The poem explores themes of morality, religion, and social justice through a series of dream visions. The opening lines introduce the narrator, who sets out on a journey and eventually falls asleep, where he has a vivid dream about the structure of society and the struggle between good and evil.

Translation:

In the summertime, when the sun was warm,

I dressed in a cloak, as if I were a shepherd,

Wearing a hermit’s robe, though I was not truly holy,

And I traveled far and wide to hear about wonders.

But one May morning, on the Malvern Hills,

Something amazing happened—almost like a fairy tale, I thought.

Tired from traveling, I lay down to rest

Under a wide hill by the side of a stream.

As I lay there, leaning forward and looking into the water,

I fell asleep because the sound was so peaceful.

Then I started to dream—a strange and wonderful dream.

 found myself in a wild, unknown place.

When I looked eastward, towards the sun,

I saw a strong tower standing on a hill.

Below it was a deep valley, with a prison inside.

It had deep, dark ditches, and it looked terrifying.

Between them, I saw a beautiful field full of people.

People of all kinds—both rich and poor.

Some were working, some were wandering, just as life demands.

Paraphrase:

One warm summer day, the narrator wore a cloak like a shepherd and went on a journey to explore the world. In May, he walked on the Malvern Hills and saw something amazing, which seemed like a fairy tale.

After traveling for a long time, he felt tired and decided to rest near a stream under a big bank. He leaned forward and listened to the sound of the water, which was so calm that he soon fell asleep. At that moment, he had a strange and wonderful dream.

In the dream, he found himself in a wild place that he did not recognize. When he looked toward the east and saw the rising sun, he noticed a tall, strong tower on top of a hill. Below it, there was a deep valley with a dark and frightening dungeon, surrounded by deep ditches.

Between the tower and the dungeon, there was a large open field full of people. Some were rich, and some were poor. Some worked hard, while others wandered from place to place because life required them to.

Example 3

The rede statue of Mars, with spere and targe,

So shyneth, in his white baner large,

That alle the feeldes gliteren up and doun,

And by his baner gorn is his penoun

Of gold ful riche, in which ther was ybete

The Mynotaur which that he slough in Crete.

Thus rit this duc, thus rit this conquerour,

And in his hoost of chivalrie the flour,

Til that he cam to Thebes, and alighte

Faire in a feeld, ther as he thoughte to fighte.

But shortly for to speken of this thyng,

With Creon, which that was of Thebes kyng,

He faught, and slough hym manly as a knyght

In pleyn bataille, and putte the folk to flyght;

And by assaut he wan the citee after,

And rente adoun bothe wall, and sparre, and rafter.

And to the ladyes he restored agayn

The bones of hir freendes that weren slayn,

To doon obsequies as was tho the gyse.

But it were al to longe for to devyse

The grete clamour and the waymentynge

That the ladyes made at the brennynge

Of the bodies, and the grete honour

That Theseus, the noble conquerour,

Dooth to the ladyes, whan they from hym wente;

But shortly for to telle is myn entente.

This passage is from Geoffrey Chaucer’s The Knight’s Tale, which is part of The Canterbury Tales. It describes Theseus, the Duke of Athens, as he leads his army against Creon, the King of Thebes, in battle. The passage highlights Theseus’s victory, the destruction of Thebes, and his act of restoring the remains of fallen warriors to the grieving women.

Translation:

The red statue of Mars, holding a spear and shield,

Shone brightly on his large white banner,

So that all the fields glittered up and down.

Along with his banner, his golden pennant flew,

Which was very richly decorated,

Showing the Minotaur that he had killed in Crete.

Thus rode this duke, thus rode this conqueror,

Leading his army, which was the finest in chivalry,

Until he arrived at Thebes and got down from his horse,

In a beautiful field where he planned to fight.

But to speak briefly about this event,

He fought with Creon, the King of Thebes,

And killed him bravely like a true knight,

In open battle, forcing his army to flee.

After that, he attacked and captured the city,

Destroying its walls, beams, and rooftops.

He then returned the bones of the dead warriors

To the grieving ladies, whose loved ones had been slain,

So they could perform the proper funeral rites.

It would take too long to describe in full

The loud cries and mourning

That the ladies made while burning

The bodies of the fallen warriors,

And the great honor that Theseus,

The noble conqueror, showed to them

Before they departed from him.

Paraphrase:

This passage comes from Geoffrey Chaucer’s The Knight’s Tale, which is part of The Canterbury Tales. The tale is set in ancient Greece and follows Theseus, the Duke of Athens, as he engages in battles, resolves conflicts, and upholds justice. In this passage, Theseus arrives at Thebes, where King Creon has dishonored fallen warriors by refusing to allow them a proper burial. Theseus, angered by this injustice, wages war against Creon. He rode into battle with his army while he carried a white banner that shone brightly and had a red statue of Mars, the god of war. His golden pennant had an image of the Minotaur, the creature that he had slain in Crete. He led his skilled warriors and reached Thebes, where he planned that he would fight. There, he faced King Creon, who had refused to allow fallen warriors to be buried. He fought a fierce battle, killed Creon, and forced his army to flee. After he had captured the city, he tore down its walls and buildings. He then gathered the remains of the fallen soldiers and gave them back to their mourning families so that they could perform proper funeral rites. The women wept loudly when they burned the bodies, and Theseus, who showed them great respect, made sure that they received justice before they left. The passage emphasizes themes of heroism, justice, and chivalry.