Introduction

Before learning how to translate a text from Middle to Modern English, let’s have an introduction of Middle English. Middle English was spoken and written in England roughly between the 12th and 15th centuries, following the Norman Conquest of 1066 and preceding the emergence of Early Modern English. This period saw significant linguistic evolution due to the blending of Old English with Norman French and Latin influences.

Middle English literature encompasses a diverse range of genres, including poetry, prose, drama, and religious texts. Some major works include: “The Canterbury Tales”, “Sir Gawain and the Green Knight”, “Piers Plowman” etc.

Even though Modern English is a newer version of Middle English, most people today still find it hard to understand Middle English. Modern English is different from middle English due to several key developments and changes that have occurred over time. Here’s a comparison highlighting the differences:

1. Grammatical Simplification

Middle English had a more complex grammatical system with inflections for case, number, and gender. In Middle English, verb conjugation (Verb conjugation refers to the alteration of a verb’s form to indicate tense, mood, aspect, person, number, or voice.) was more complex compared to Modern English. Middle English verbs underwent inflection to indicate tense, person, and number.  Over time, Modern English has simplified this system with fewer verb endings and a more consistent structure. For instance;

In Middle English, Present tense of the verb “loven” (to love):

• • “Ich love” (I love)
  • “Thou lovest” (You love)
  • “He/she loveth” (He/she loves)
  • “We loven” (We love)
  • “Ye loven” (You love)
  • “They loven” (They love)

Middle English verbs also had different endings for past tense forms. For example, Past tense of the verb “loven”:

• • “Ich lovede” (I loved)
  • “Thou lovedest” (You loved)
  • “He/she lovede” (He/she loved)
  • “We loveden” (We loved)
  • “Ye loveden” (You loved)
  • “They loveden” (They loved)

In Modern English most verbs have the same form regardless of the subject, with the addition of auxiliary verbs to indicate tense and aspect. For example, Present tense of the verb “love”:

• • “I love”
  • “You love”
  • “He/she loves”
  • “We love”
  • “You love”
  • “They love”

Past tense of the verb “love”:

• • “I loved”
  • “You loved”
  • “He/she loved”
  • “We loved”
  • “You loved”
  • “They loved”

2. Standardization of Syntax

Middle English had a more fluid word order, allowing for greater variation in the arrangement of words within a sentence. Word order was often influenced by emphasis, rhythm, or poetic considerations rather than strict grammatical rules. For instance, “I love thee” or “Thee love I”. Both mean “I love you.” Another example is “Came the knight riding” (The knight came riding.) Here, the verb “came” precedes the subject “the knight” for emphasis or poetic effect.

Modern English has a more rigid word order, typically following the subject-verb-object (SVO) pattern in declarative sentences. Word order plays a crucial role in conveying meaning and grammatical relationships. For instance, “The cat chased the mouse” – In Modern English, the typical word order is subject-verb-object (SVO), where “the cat” (subject) performs the action “chased” (verb) on “the mouse” (object). Changing the word order, such as “The mouse chased the cat,” alters the meaning of the sentence.

3. Expansion of Vocabulary

Middle English vocabulary was heavily influenced by Old English, Norse, French, and Latin. Many words have different meanings or usage compared to Modern English.

Modern English has significantly expanded its vocabulary through borrowings from other languages, technological advancements, and cultural changes. While many words from Middle English are still in use today, Modern English has incorporated new terms and expressions to reflect contemporary realities.

4. Simplified Spelling

Middle English had a more variable and inconsistent spelling system compared to Modern English. The standardization of spelling conventions during the Early Modern English period helped to simplify and regularize the spelling of words.

5. Phonological Changes

Modern English has undergone significant phonological changes, including the Great Vowel Shift, which occurred during the transition from Middle English to Early Modern English. These changes altered the pronunciation of vowels and contributed to the development of the phonological system of Modern English.Some of these changes are:

• Changes in Vowels: Long vowels lost their length and became diphthongs (two-part sounds), while short vowels also changed in both pronunciation and spelling. Short vowels underwent further changes, like the loss of the final unstressed “e” in words. Some vowels changed their pronunciation, like “a” becoming “o” before certain consonants, as in “all” or “fall.”
• Changes in Consonants: New consonant sounds were added, like the “ng” sound in “sing.” Some sounds disappeared in certain contexts, like the “gh” sound after vowels, as in “night.” Other changes included losing sounds before certain consonants, like the “l” in “half” or “palm.”
• Changes in Diphthongs: Diphthongs, which are combinations of two vowel sounds, tended to become simpler over time. New diphthongs emerged, like “oo” in words like “pure” or “mute,” or “ew” in words like “new” or “glue.”
• Changes in Prosody: (Prosody refers to the study of the rhythms and sounds of language.) There were changes in how people stressed words and in the pitch of their voice in sentences. Questions often had rising pitch, while statements had falling pitch. People tended to stress the first syllable of words more often, and there were many different ways to pronounce words.

Examples of converting Middle English texts into Modern English through translation and paraphrasing:

Whan that Aprille with his shoures soote,

The droghte of March hath perced to the roote,

And bathed every veyne in swich licóur

Of which vertú engendred is the flour;

Whan Zephirus eek with his swete breeeth

Inspired hath in every holt and heeth

The tendre croppes, and the yonge sonne

Hath in the Ram his halfe cours y-ronne,

And smale foweles makes melodye,

That slepen at the nyght with open ye,

So priketh hem Nature in hir corages,

Thanne longen folk to goon on pilgrimages,

And palmeres for to seken straunge strondes,

The quoted lines are from the “Prologue to the Canterbury Tales,” authored by Geoffrey Chaucer, widely regarded as the pioneer of English literature. This prologue sets the stage for the main narrative and offers rich descriptions of the characters embarking on the pilgrimage. Chaucer meticulously portrays the time, setting, and the diverse group of pilgrims, providing vivid depictions of their appearances, actions, and societal standing.

Translation:

“When April with its sweet showers

Has pierced the drought of March to the root,

And bathed every vein in such moisture

By which power is generated in the flower;

When Zephyrus also with his sweet breath

Inspired has in every wood and heath

The tender crops, and the young sun

Has in the Ram half his course run,

And small birds make melody,

That sleep at night with open eye,

So nature stimulates them in their hearts,

Then people long to go on pilgrimages,

And pilgrims to seek strange shores.

Paraphrase:

The opening 13 lines of the ‘General Prologue to the Canterbury Tales’ beautifully capture the arrival of spring and its transformative influence on both the natural world and human emotions. They convey feelings of rejuvenation, vitality, and wanderlust—the yearning for exploration—that accompany the onset of spring. The poet describes how when April arrives with its gentle showers, it replenishes the earth after the dryness of March, bringing new life to the land. The rain fills every part of the earth with its life-giving essence and nurtures it, giving rise to flowers that symbolize fresh starts and development. The introduction of Zephyrus, the God of the west wind, highlights the rejuvenating effect of spring on nature, as he spreads his sweet fragrance into budding plants throughout the woods and meadows. The mention of the young sun having already completed half of its journey through the zodiac sign of Aries confirms that it’s now mid-spring. Just like how birds sing happily even when they’re resting, nature sparks a desire within them. Similarly, people feel a strong urge to go on adventures, much like pilgrims seeking new and exciting places to explore. This highlights the close connection between humans and nature and our shared longing for new experiences.