The Restoration Drama

At the Restoration the break with the past was almost absolute. It involved our literature in the deepest degree; subject and style took on a new spirit and outlook, a different attitude and aim.”

(Albert 191-2) 

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Quick Links

• Historical Context
• Revival of Drama after the Puritan Ban
• The Restoration Comedy of Manners
• The Restoration Tragedy
• Stagecraft and Spectacle
• Decline of Restoration Drama
• Conclusion

A Brief Historical Background 

According to Albert, “three historical events deeply influenced the literary movements of the time”. The Restoration of monarchy in 1660 “brought about a revolution in our literature”. When the Puritan Government ended, people returned to activities that had been banned. These activities “flew to violent excesses,” and many comedies depicted “a levity that often became immoral and indecent.” In the later part of Charles II’s reign, we find that the “religious-political passions” were strong. There was widespread anti-Catholic hysteria, and this fear “colours all the writings of the time,” with Dryden’s Absalom and Achitophel as a prime example of such literature. In 1688, Charles’s Catholic brother James II was removed from the throne because of his “Roman Catholic prejudices.” After this, “religious passions diminish[ed] in intensity,” and writers began to “emphasize the political rather than the religious side of public affairs” (191). 

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Revival of Drama after the Puritan Ban 

The Restoration period in English literature began in 1660 with the return of Charles II to the English throne after years of Puritan rule under Oliver Cromwell. One of the immediate and significant cultural changes brought about by this political shift was the revival of the theatre. During the Puritan Commonwealth (aka Puritan Interregnum; 1649–1660), public stage performances were banned. Theatres were closed, and actors faced persecution, as drama was considered immoral and sinful by the strict Puritan leadership. 

However, Charles II, having spent much of his exile in France, returned with a more liberal and cosmopolitan attitude. He had been exposed to the grandeur of French drama at the court of Louis XIV and recognised the theatre’s potential both as a form of entertainment and as a medium of political and cultural influence. One of his earliest acts was to license two official theatre companies—the King’s Company, led by Thomas Killigrew, and the Duke’s Company, led by William Davenant. This marked the formal restoration of English theatre. This revival was not merely a return to pre-Puritan drama but rather a reimagining of it. The period saw a blending of English traditions with European influences. Charles II encouraged the development of drama that reflected the tastes and interests of his court. Hence, the resulting plays were often witty, satirical, and indulgent in themes of love and intrigue. 

Davenant and Killigrew began producing new plays as well as adapting older ones, often adding elaborate stage directions, musical elements, and scenic effects that had been inspired by the French and Italian stages. Davenant, for example, is credited with staging The Siege of Rhodes in 1656, even before the official Restoration. This performance, although private and technically musical in nature, is considered by some scholars as a precursor to Restoration drama. It also featured the first appearance of a professional actress on the English stage—Mrs. Coleman—an innovation that would soon become permanent. Margaret Hughes’ appearance as Desdemona in Othello in 1660, for Killigrew’s company marked the beginning of the regular inclusion of actresses in public theatre after the ban was lifted. 

The reopening of theatres symbolised not just a cultural revival but a wider change in English society. The Restoration court was notorious for its libertine values, and this was reflected in the themes and characters of the new dramas. Criticising the moral and artistic downfall of English drama, William J. Long remarks: 

When a man takes another for his model, he should copy virtues not vices; but unfortunately many English writers reversed the rule, copying the vices of French comedy without any of its wit or delicacy or abundant ideas (ch. 8). 

Regardless, the stage once again became a public space where ideas, manners, and morals were displayed, questioned, and often mocked. 

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The Restoration Comedy of Manners 

One of the most remarkable developments in drama during the Restoration Age was the rise of the Comedy of Manners. This genre of comedy focused on the behaviour, speech, and romantic entanglements of the upper classes, particularly the aristocracy. These plays were set in urban, often fashionable settings, and aimed to satirise the social customs, pretensions, and hypocrisies of the time. They were known for their sharp wit, clever dialogue, and complex plots involving disguises, misunderstandings, and extramarital affairs. 

The Comedy of Manners emerged directly from the changing cultural environment of the Restoration court, which was known for its indulgence in pleasure and entertainment. The new drama reflected and exaggerated these libertine values. Playwrights used the stage to mock the vanity and superficiality of the elite, while also entertaining audiences with their boldness and verbal dexterity. Some major writers of the Restoration Comedy of Manners are: 

1. William Wycherley: He was one of the earliest and most notable writers of this form. His play The Country Wife (1675) is a clear example of the genre’s features. The plot revolves around Horner, a man who pretends to be impotent in order to gain the trust of husbands and seduce their wives. The play uses sexual undertone and farcical situations to expose the moral double standards of Restoration society. Wycherley’s sharp observation of social norms and his unapologetic use of scandalous themes made the play both popular and controversial. 

1. William Congreve: Another leading figure was William Congreve. Albert praises his contribution to the form claiming that “he is probably the first in merit among the comedy-writers” (203). His play The Way of the World (1700) is often considered the masterpiece of the Comedy of Manners. In this play, characters like Mirabell and Millamant engage in a battle of wit and negotiation over marriage. Millamant’s famous line, “I may lie abed in a morning as long as I please,” is a humorous assertion of independence and a critique of the expectations placed upon women (Congreve 4.1). The play critiques the profit-driven nature of marriage among the wealthy and pokes fun at social ambition and manipulation. It also demonstrates the refined use of language and elegant structure that marks the height of the genre. 

1. George Etherege: He was one of the pioneers of the Restoration Comedy of Manners. His play The Man of Mode (1676) is a key example of the style. The character Dorimant, a witty and charming libertine, is believed to be based on Etherege’s own life or possibly on the Earl of Rochester. The play presents a picture of fashionable London life, full of flirtation, gossip, and clever dialogues. Etherege avoids deep moral lessons, and instead focuses on the elegance and grace of the upper-class society. His plays are known for their polished wit and the portrayal of characters who live by style rather than strict morals. 

1. Sir John Vanbrugh: He brought a slightly broader comic style to the genre. His play The Relapse (1696) is known for its bold humour, theatrical energy and sharp social satire. Unlike some of his contemporaries, Vanbrugh often included a mixture of high and low characters, combining wit with farce. The play features Lord Foppington, a comically exaggerated glamour boy who represents the absurdity of vanity and artificial manners. Vanbrugh’s comedies reflect a livelier tone, and his use of dramatic situations often leans toward physical comedy, yet he still maintains the sharp social critique typical of the Comedy of Manners. 

1. Thomas Shadwell: He is often remembered for his attempt to combine the Comedy of Manners with moral instruction as prescribed by Ben Jonson. His play The Squire of Alsatia (1688) presents a vivid picture of London’s criminal underworld and corrupt society. The term “Alsatia” refers to a lawless district in Whitefriars, London. Shadwell uses the setting to contrast rural honesty with urban cunning. Though less polished in wit than Etherege or Congreve, his plays were popular for their energy, rough humour, and social relevance. He focused more on satire than style, targeting vice and corruption directly. 

1. George Farquhar: He introduced more warmth and humanity into the genre. His play The Beaux’ Stratagem (1707) tells the story of two young men who pose as master and servant to marry wealthy women, only to be reformed by genuine love. Farquhar’s characters, like Aimwell and Archer, are witty but also capable of emotional growth. He often included strong female characters, such as Mrs. Sullen, who criticises her loveless marriage. Farquhar’s comedies move towards a more sentimental tone, preparing the ground for the later shift in eighteenth-century comedy. 

A key feature of Comedy of Manners is its use of stock characters—such as the fop (glamour boy), the rake (womaniser), the witty heroine, and the jealous husband—who represent certain attitudes or social types. The plays do not usually aim for moral instruction but rather for social observation and amusement. This genre also opened space for women both as characters and as actresses. The witty, self-confident female characters reflected a new visibility of women in both theatre and society. 

Restoration comedies reflect the unrestrained values of the court and celebrate cleverness over sincerity, artifice over honesty. The popularity of such plays also shows a shift in audience expectations—from moral tales to entertainment that both challenged and delighted the urban elite. Thus, the Comedy of Manners became the defining comic form of the Restoration period. With its lively dialogue, satirical edge, and social relevance, it captured the spirit of an age that valued pleasure, cleverness, and performance. Today these plays serve as important documents cherished not only for their artistic quality but also for the insights they offer into Restoration society.

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The Restoration Tragedy 

While the Restoration Age was predominantly an age of vibrant comedies, it also saw the growth of a tragedic dramatic form known as Heroic Tragedy. It must, however, be noted that while heroic tragedy was a dominant tragedic form, especially in the early Restoration period, some tragedies began to shift toward more emotional, realistic, or pathetic styles, as seen in Otway’s Venice Preserved and The Orphan, which are not fully heroic but more sentimental and tragic in tone. Even Dryden, the most representative author of the age, was consistently adapting to the public taste: while most of his tragedies were written in heroic couplets, for his later masterpiece All for Love, he chose to write in blank verse. 

The Heroic Tragedy 

This genre focused on noble characters caught in intense emotional and moral conflicts, usually involving love, honour, and duty. Inspired by French Neoclassical drama and classical themes, these plays were written in lofty, poetic language and aimed to elevate the audience through grand themes and high emotional stakes. Heroic tragedies were typically written in rhymed couplets, following the style introduced by French dramatists like Pierre Corneille and Jean Racine. They were often set in distant lands or historical times, such as the ancient world or the East, to create a sense of grandeur and detachment from everyday life. The heroes of these plays were larger than life—courageous, passionate, and willing to sacrifice everything for love or honour. 

The leading figure of this genre was John Dryden, who not only wrote many of these plays but also set the tone for what heroic tragedy should be. In his preface to The Conquest of Granada (1670), he defined the genre as “an imitation, in little, of an heroic poem,” arguing that it should deal with great actions, performed by great men. The Conquest of Granada itself tells the story of Almanzor, a noble Moorish warrior, caught between two rival queens and torn by love and duty. The character’s powerful speeches, filled with rhetorical flourish and emotional force, reflect the ideals of the genre. 

A scene depicting the climax scene of Dryden’s All for Love. Antony is dying in Cleopatra’s arms as she is preparing to die from an asp bite, amidst the stillness of approaching tragedy.

Another important example is Dryden’s All for Love (1677), a retelling of Shakespeare’s Antony and Cleopatra. Unlike his earlier heroic tragedies, this one was written in blank verse, showing Dryden’s shift toward a more natural style. The play explores the tragic love between Mark Antony and Cleopatra, focusing on themes of loyalty, passion, and downfall. Antony’s inner conflict between his Roman duty and his love for Cleopatra captures the essence of heroic struggle. His inner conflict reflects the theme of the loss of reason in the face of deep emotion. 

Heroic tragedy also mirrored the political climate of the Restoration. Many plays presented loyalty to the crown as a noble ideal, reinforcing royalist values in the newly restored monarchy. At the same time, these dramas gave audiences a space to explore human weakness and inner conflict in a stylised and elevated way. Heroic tragedies often presented impossible moral choices, giving the characters tragic dignity through their struggle. Dryden brought a sense of order and grandeur to Restoration tragedy, favouring lofty language, noble characters, and political or romantic conflicts. However, the age as a whole was less suited to tragedy. The mood of the time was too light-hearted, the poetic quality generally uneven, and there was a lack of inspiring new models. As a result, few tragedies from this period achieved lasting fame, though some writers made notable contributions. 

1. Thomas Otway (1651–1685): He is remembered chiefly for Venice Preserved (1682), which remained a popular tragedy for many years. The play explores themes of love, betrayal, and political conspiracy, set in a dark and oppressive Venice. Otway’s skill lies in his ability to create emotionally charged scenes and tragic intensity, although he sometimes exaggerates the horrors. His earlier tragedy The Orphan (1680) is also notable for its emotional depth. Otway’s language can be uneven, and his comic parts are crude, but his serious scenes hold genuine dramatic power. Albert says, “If he is second to Shakespeare, he is a very bad second” (206). 

1. Nathaniel Lee (1653–1692): Lee was a tragic dramatist known for his wild imagination and powerful, though often excessive, style. His plays, such as The Rival Queens (1677) and Mithridates (1678), show a tendency toward melodrama and emotional intensity. While his reputation during his time was mixed due to his erratic behaviour and madness, his works display moments of real poetic beauty and pathos. His style was marked by grand speeches, strong emotions, and dramatic conflicts, though at times it slips into exaggeration and lack of control. 

1. Elkanah Settle (1648–1724): He gained brief fame with The Empress of Morocco (1673), a heroic tragedy that drew attention partly for being the first English play to be published with illustrations. However, Settle’s work is generally regarded as poor in quality. He became a figure of satire and mockery, especially by Dryden and others. His verse lacks refinement, and his dramatic plots often appear artificial and shallow. 

1. John Crowne (1640–1703): Crowne was a prolific dramatist who wrote both tragedies and comedies. His tragedy Caligula (1698) and his blank verse play Thyestes are examples of his efforts in serious drama. Although he lacked the poetic grace of better-known writers, Crowne shows competence in dramatic structure and versification. His work reflects the average standard of the Restoration stage—clever, but not inspired. 

1. Nicholas Rowe (1674–1718): Rowe marked a shift toward a more refined and sentimental form of tragedy. His plays such as Tamerlane (1702), The Fair Penitent (1703), and Jane Shore (1714) were popular for their moral tone and polished language. His characters often suffer nobly and speak in elegant, smooth verse. Though lacking the power of earlier tragic writers, Rowe was admired in his time for the reasonableness of his scenes and the charm of his style. He later became Poet Laureate. Johnson praises him saying, “His reputation comes from the reasonableness of some of his scenes, the elegance of his diction, and the suavity (charm) of his verse” (206). 

The popularity of heroic tragedy began to decline by the late 1670s, as audiences grew weary of its exaggerated style and turned to more natural and realistic forms of drama. Yet its influence remained strong in later tragedies and even in sentimental drama, which carried forward the emphasis on emotional depth and moral choices. Heroic tragedy brought poetic grandeur and moral seriousness to the Restoration stage. It portrayed human passion and honour in heightened forms, allowing both playwrights and audiences to engage with noble ideals and the tragedies of fate and character. 

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Stagecraft and Spectacle 

One of the most distinctive features of Restoration drama was the remarkable transformation in stagecraft and visual presentation. Unlike the bare stages of Elizabethan and Jacobean theatre, Restoration drama embraced elaborate spectacle, influenced by developments in France and Italy during Charles II’s exile. This period saw significant changes in theatre architecture, scenery, lighting, and performance practices, all of which helped shape a new and visually rich theatre culture. 

Theatres that reopened after 1660 were designed differently from those before the Puritan closure. Indoor, roofed theatres replaced the open-air playhouses of Shakespeare’s time. The most famous of these were the Theatre Royal in Drury Lane and Lincoln’s Inn Fields. These venues were equipped with proscenium arches and deep stages, which allowed for the use of painted movable scenery. Scenery could now be shifted during the performance using a system of grooves and sliding shutters, creating dramatic changes in location before the eyes of the audience. 

Scenic splendour became an essential part of the performance, with painted backdrops showing city streets, royal courts, or classical ruins. Perspective painting was used to give depth to the stage, making scenes appear more realistic. Wings and shutters were also employed to control sightlines and focus the audience’s attention. The use of artificial lighting was another important development. Though natural light was still relied upon to some extent, especially in early performances, candlelight and later oil lamps were used to enhance dramatic effects. Chandeliers hung above the stage and audience, while footlights and sidelights helped highlight actors and scenes. This helped to set mood and atmosphere, making performances more immersive. 

Perhaps the most dramatic change came in the use of actresses on stage for the first time in England. Prior to the Restoration, female roles were played by young boys. But Charles II, influenced by French theatre traditions, allowed and encouraged women to act. This not only changed the dynamics of performance but also the nature of playwriting itself. Roles were now written to suit women, and themes of romance, seduction, and gender became central to many Restoration plays. Actresses such as Nell Gwyn, Elizabeth Barry, and Anne Bracegirdle became celebrities in their own right. Nell Gwyn, for example, rose from an orange seller at the theatre to become both an acclaimed actress and the king’s mistress. 

Special effects were also introduced during this period, including thunder machines, flying machinery, and trapdoors. These effects were often used in heroic tragedies and musical entertainments to enhance the sense of wonder and drama. The Restoration audience, increasingly drawn from the fashionable and moneyed classes, expected theatre to entertain them not just through words but also through visual delight.  Restoration theatre created a more luxurious and technically sophisticated stage experience, with a strong focus on spectacle and sensory engagement. These technical innovations transformed English theatre from a primarily verbal art into a visual and musical one as well. 

To sum up, Restoration stagecraft marked a turning point in English dramatic performance. With new theatre designs, movable scenery, professional actresses, and technical effects, the stage became a place of both visual magic and dramatic expression. These innovations helped make the theatre not just a place of moral or intellectual engagement, but also of vibrant public spectacle.

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Decline of Restoration Drama

By the end of the 17th century, the vibrant and bold tone that had marked Restoration drama began to decline. The witty and often cynical spirit of the Comedy of Manners and the grandeur of Heroic Tragedy no longer held the same appeal. Changes in political mood, religious feeling, and social taste led to a shift in audience preferences, marking the gradual end of the Restoration theatrical era and paving the way for the rise of more moralistic and sentimental forms of drama. 

Several factors contributed to this transformation. The political atmosphere became increasingly conservative following the Glorious Revolution of 1688, which brought William and Mary to the throne. This change brought with it a stronger emphasis on Protestant morality, national stability, and public decency. The public became less tolerant of the licentiousness that had characterised early Restoration plays, especially the frank treatment of sexual themes and the irreverent portrayal of marriage and virtue. Audiences grew weary of the cynicism and vice celebrated on stage and began to seek characters with sincere emotions and moral integrity. 

By the turn of the century, this shift was reflected in the rise of Sentimental Comedy, a new dramatic form that replaced wit with emotion and satire with moral instruction. In these plays, characters were portrayed as essentially good, and virtue was rewarded while vice was corrected. The aim was to appeal to the audience’s feelings and sense of righteousness rather than to amuse them with clever dialogue or mockery. The Conscious Lovers (1722) by Richard Steele is often cited as an early example of this emerging trend, although it came slightly after the Restoration period. It set the tone for what was to become common in 18th-century theatre. 

Alongside sentimental comedy came Domestic Tragedy, which moved away from the heroic themes of earlier tragedies. These plays focused on ordinary characters and everyday moral struggles. The emphasis was now on realistic emotion and moral consequences rather than elevated speech and noble sacrifice. The audience was no longer impressed by heroic posturing; instead, they wanted to see the reflection of their own social and moral concerns on stage. 

The role of women in drama also changed during this time. While earlier Restoration plays had offered witty and sexually confident female characters, sentimental and domestic dramas often returned to portraying women as virtuous, modest, and morally upright. This mirrored a broader social move towards domestic values and away from courtly excess.  In addition, the theatre itself began to face competition from other forms of entertainment such as opera, musical performances, and increasingly available printed books. The audience for live drama changed in character, and playwrights adjusted their styles to match the changing mood. 

By the early 18th century, the Restoration ideals of theatrical wit, audacity, and spectacle had largely given way to gentler, more didactic forms of drama. Though many of the Restoration plays were revived later for their literary value and lively dialogue, at the time they were seen as outdated and immoral. The end of the Restoration period in drama was marked by a decline in bold theatrical expression and a movement towards emotional sincerity and moral seriousness. This transition reflected broader changes in English society and taste, leaving behind a legacy of dramatic innovation but making way for a more restrained and morally conscious stage.

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Conclusion 

The Restoration Age marked a significant turning point in the history of English drama. Emerging from the silence imposed by Puritan rule, the theatre was revived with a new energy, blending wit, spectacle, and innovation. The period saw the flourishing of Comedy of Manners, where playwrights like William Congreve and George Etherege captured the elegance and hypocrisy of high society with sharp dialogue and clever situations. At the same time, Heroic Tragedy brought grandeur and emotional intensity to the stage, with John Dryden leading the way in crafting noble characters torn by honour and passion. 

Equally notable was the transformation in stagecraft, with theatres adopting movable scenery, artificial lighting, and the use of professional actresses, all of which contributed to a more dynamic and visually appealing theatrical experience. These innovations made the Restoration stage a space not just of intellectual entertainment but also of artistic display and public engagement. 

However, as the century drew to a close, public taste began to shift. The bold wit and moral ambiguity of earlier plays gave way to a preference for emotional sincerity and moral instruction, resulting in the rise of Sentimental Comedy and Domestic Tragedy. This transition reflected the evolving social, religious, and political values of the time. 

In retrospect, Restoration drama was a reflection of its age—full of contrasts, both refined and indulgent, witty yet capable of deep feeling. Though it eventually gave way to more restrained forms of drama, its contributions to English theatre in style, technique, and characterisation is enduring and influential. 

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Related Contents

• Fundamentals of Drama

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