Le Morte d’Arthur

Sir Thomas Malory’s Le Morte d’Arthur is a medieval prose work that chronicles the legendary tales of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table. The work revolves around the ideals of chivalry, the quest for the Holy Grail, and the tragic downfall of King Arthur and his kingdom.

Important Facts

Full Title: Le Morte d’Arthur

Written: 1469-1470; Newgate Prison, London

Published: 1485

Literary Period: Age of Revival (15th Century)

Genre: Arthurian Romance

Setting: England (“Logris”) and France

Climax: Mordred, Arthur’s illegitimate son, prepares to seize the throne during Arthur’s absence, while Arthur is engaged in a fight with his once-loyal knight, Launcelot.

Point of View: A first-person narrator, apparently the author, relates a number of events to which he has only second-hand or third-hand knowledge.

Introduction

Le Morte d’Arthur, originally written as le morte Darthur, meaning The Death of Arthur, is a 15th-century Middle English prose reconstruction by Sir Thomas Malory of the Arthurian legend. It is the first English-language prose version of the Arthurian tales. Apparently written in prison at the end of the medieval English era, it was completed by Malory about 1470 and printed by William Caxton in 1485. Apparently written in prison at the end of the medieval English era, it was completed by Malory about 1470 and first printed by William Caxton in 1485. The Caxton version divided Malory’s eight tales into twenty-one books.  It retells the adventures of the knights of the Round Table in chronological sequence from the birth of Arthur to his death.

Based on French romances, Malory’s account differs from his models in its emphasis on the brotherhood of the knights rather than on courtly love, and on the conflicts of loyalty brought about by the adultery of Lancelot and Guinevere that finally destroy the fellowship. Today, this is one of the best-known works of Arthurian literature. Many authors since the 19th-century revival of the legend have used Malory as their principal source. Alfred, Lord Tennyson’s Idylls of the King, Mark Twain’s A Connecticut Yankee In King Arthur’s Court, John Steinbeck’s The Acts of King Arthur and His Noble Knights, and many other works draw from Le Morte d’Arthur for their material.

The Arthurian Legend

The Arthurian legend refers to a collection of tales and medieval romances, sometimes also known as the matter of Britain, revolving around the mythical King Arthur. Medieval writers, particularly the French, treated various aspects of Arthur’s story, including his birth, the adventures of his knights, and the adulterous love affair between Sir Lancelot (pronounced LAN-suh-lot) and Queen Guinevere (pronounced ‘Gwin-eh-viyh). The culmination of this narrative involves the challenge for the Holy Grail, the sacred vessel used during Christ’s Last Supper. Ultimately, these events lead to the dissolution of the knightly fellowship (i.e. round table, which symbolizes equality and unity among the knights), the death of Arthur, and the destruction of his kingdom.

Before the 11th century, stories about Arthur and his court had been popular in Wales. These tales became popular throughout Europe after Geoffrey of Monmouth wrote Historia regum Britanniae (1135-38). The narrative celebrated Arthur as a triumphant king who defeated a Roman army in eastern France but met his demise in battle during a rebellion at home led by his nephew Mordred. Geoffrey introduced some fantastical elements to the legend. The idea of Arthur as a world conqueror drew inspiration from legends about eminent leaders like Alexander the Great. Subsequent writers added details, particularly regarding Arthur’s knightly fellowship, known as the Knights of the Round Table. The legend was later adapted by other medieval writers, including Chrétien de Troyes, Wace, Lawamon, and Sir Thomas Malory, and eventually became entwined (means fused or mixed) with legends of the Holy Grail.

Since the Victorian era, when interest in the legend revived, King Arthur has been a central figure in significant works by Alfred Tennyson (Idylls of the King) and T.H. White (The Once and Future King). According to medieval accounts, he was a warrior in the 6th century, promoting Christianity and uniting British tribes against Saxon invaders. It is assumed that he died in the battle of Camlann around 539 and was buried at Glastonbury.

Who is King Arthur?

King Arthur is a legendary British king who appears in a series of stories and medieval romances as the head of a group of knightly fellowship called the Round Table. Legends vary on how Arthur became king, though most involve his famous sword, Excalibur. Some involve Arthur fulfilling a prophecy by pulling Excalibur from a stone, whereas others assert that a mystical woman in a lake bestowed the sword upon him. King Arthur was married to Guinevere in most legends. Early traditions of abduction and infidelity follow Guinevere, who in some stories, was carried off by Arthur’s rivals, and in others, had an adulterous affair with the Knight Lancelot.

Who was Thomas Malory?

Much is not known with certainty about Thomas Malory’s life, but evidence indicates that he came from Newbold Revel in Warwickshire, England. It is speculated that he was born between 1405 and 1420, while most sources agree that he died in March of 1471. Sources indicate that a Thomas Malory was knighted in 1441 and held various public offices until 1450.

Evidences suggest that sometime after 1450 Malory turned to a life of lawlessness and was imprisoned for miscellaneous crimes which includes extortion and attempted assassination. Early in the text of Le Morte d’Arthur, the author of the book has been referred to as a knight prisoner.

The contemporary politics of Malory’s time had a profound influence on the creation of the text. Malory lived during the War of the Roses, a time of much political strife between two royal houses fighting for control over England. The personal rivalries and political disintegration of Malory’s time clearly influenced his interpretation of the Arthurian legend.

Major Characters

Uther Pendragon (YOO-thur PEN-druh-gon)

Arthur’s father, a powerful king whose death sparks the initial turmoil. This web of political strife, magical intrigue, external threats, and internal decay creates the chaotic backdrop for Arthur’s rise to power. Arthur’s ability to unite the differing factions and bring back stability becomes his defining challenge and the foundation of his legendary reign.

King Arthur

Born to Uther Pendragon and Igrayne (eye-GRAYN; the wife of the Duke of Cornwall. Uther Pendragon seduces and later marries her), Arthur is entrusted by his parents to the care of Merlin the magician, who serves as his advisor. Raised by Sir Ector, a nobleman, Arthur eventually reveals his destiny by extracting the sword Excalibur from the stone, establishing himself as the most powerful king of his time.

As the ruler of Britain and leader of the Round Table, Arthur embodies bravery, justice, and self-restraint. He places a high value on the fellowship of his men, even overlooking his queen’s affair with Launcelot. It is only when Mordred (MOR-dred) and Agravaine (AH-gruh-vayn) compel him to take action against the unfolding events in his kingdom.

Queen Guenevere (GWIN-eh-viyh)

Queen Guenevere, characterized by her passionate and jealous nature, becomes a source of distress for her lover Launcelot. She experiences remorse when King Arthur faces betrayal by Mordred, eventually leading to her death in a convent. As Arthur’s wife and Launcelot’s romantic interest, Guinevere plays a dual role. She not only inspires knights to uphold moral and chivalrous conduct but also shares deep and reciprocal affection with both Arthur and Launcelot.

Launcelot du Lake (LOHN-suh-lot dew layk)

Ban’s son, a remarkable knight second only to those who complete the Grail quest, has a vision of the Grail but can’t achieve it due to his love for the queen, despite his sincere regret. He remains loyal to Guinevere. Launcelot, close friends with Tristam, gives him his castle, Joyous Gard, for a peaceful life with Isode. Launcelot is later tricked into sleeping with Elayne, who bears his son, Galahad, the celebrated knight who succeeds in the Grail Quest. Guinevere, angered, banishes Launcelot, causing him immense grief that leaves him half-mad. Elayne arranges his healing by the Grail, and he’s welcomed back to Camelot.

Gawain (GAH-wihn)

Arthur’s loyal nephew, known for his courage and strength. He defends Arthur but is also consumed by vengeance. He stands for virtue and justice influenced by mercy in his uncle’s final contest with Launcelot. However, he dishonours his fellowship earlier by beheading a lady and fatally attacking the unarmed Lamorak de Galis.

Gahalad

Lancelot’s son from Elaine, destined to achieve the Holy Grail. He also pulls the sword from the floating stone, thus gaining the title of the best knight in the world but also accepting the sword’s curse that it will later cause a severe wound. He represents purity and unwavering devotion to his ideals.

Mordred (MOHR-drehd)

Arthur’s illegitimate son by his sister, an ill-tempered, evil knight who eventually destroys the fellowship of the Round Table and his royal father. He is driven by ambition and a thirst for power. He manipulates and betrays to claim the throne.

Merlin

The wise and enigmatic (means “mysterious) sorcerer who guides Arthur and guards Camelot. He possesses powerful magic and often offers cryptic (means “obscure” or “difficult to understand”) advice. Merlin’s spell allows King Uther Pendragon to enter Tintagil Castle in the shape of the rightful duke of Cornwall, husband of the lovely Igraine, Arthur’s mother. In return, Uther promises that the child thus conceived will be turned over to Merlin, to be reared under his charge.

Morgan le Fay

Arthur’s powerful half sister, driven by envy and resentment. She uses magic to manipulate and plot against Camelot. She continually devises evil for him and his knights.

Lady of the Lake

A mystical figure who grants Excalibur to Arthur and supervises his final moments.

Summary of Le Morte d’Arthur 

From Book 1 through Book 21, Le Morte d’Arthur follows the story of the legendary British king, Arthur and his Knights at the Round Table. Arthur, the son of King Uther Pendragon was raised away from his parents by Sir Ector. He proves his right to become the heir of King Uther, when as a boy, he pulls the sword called Excalibur from the stone. Although he rules wisely and is always assisted by Merlin, he makes enemies of other kings and is often at war.

When Arthur marries Guinevere, he receives the Round Table as a wedding gift from his father-in-law at which 150 men can sit. Guinevere, who is often present at the gathering of the Round Table, acts as a moral compass for the knights, rewarding knights who behave well and criticising those who made poor judgements. Malory relates the tales of Sir Gawain, Sir Tor, and Sir Pellanor to introduce and illustrate the concept of chivalry.

Arthur faces a potential betrayal from his sister Morgan le Fay who used magical abilities to plot against Arthur and his kingdom. However, Nineve, a sorceress trained by Merlin, saves Arthur. Arthur then fights the Romans when Emperor Lucius of Rome demands that Arthur bow to him. Despite of subsequent battles, Arthur and his Knights emerge victorious and return back to Guinevere. Soon Launcelot establishes himself as the greatest Knight in the world by his virtue, loyalty and bravery. Similarly, Gawain’s brother, Sir Gareth, proves his bravery through his many adventures.

Malory then introduces the love episode of Tristram (or Tristan) and Isode (or Isolde). Tristram, the son of King Melyodas de Lyones is introduced and his adventures unfold. He kills Sir Marhault to free his uncle from a debt owed to King Angwyssh of Ireland, and then falls in love with Isode, Angwyssh’s daughter. However, Isode marries Tristram’s uncle Mark, although he and Isode remain lovers. Tristram is exiled by Mark, which means he can no longer use his true identity; thus, he fights as The Knight with the Black Shield. During exile Tristram defeats many of Arthur’s knights but ends up imprisoned and falls ill. He escapes and eventually meets and fights Launcelot in a duel predicted by Merlin. They recognise each other, stop fighting and become best friends. Lancelot takes Tristram back to Camelot, where he is made a knight at the Round Table

Launcelot, who is in love with and completely loyal to Guinevere, rides one day in search of adventure. He kills a dragon, sees the Grail, and is tricked into lying with Pellas’ daughter Elayne, with whom he has a son, Galahad. Guinevere, upon hearing of the affair, has Launcelot banished from court; Launcelot then wanders from place to place in his grief. Elayne, through her father, heals Launcelot with the Grail, and he eventually returns happily to Camelot and the Round Table.

Launcelot introduces his son, Galahad, to the court, and Galahad takes the Sege Perilous, the seat at the Round Table that no knight has been worthy enough to fill. Galahad also draws the sword from the floating stone, establishing him as the best knight in the world, but also accepting the sword’s curse — that it will later cause him a serious wound.

Most of the knights then set out separately on Grail Quest. During the Quest, Launcelot, Percival, and Bors undergo profound religious transformations, whereas Ector and Gawain are deemed impure for the Grail Quest by a hermit. Galahad, Percival, and Bors unite for the quest, briefly parting ways. At Castle Corbenic, Launcelot is deemed unworthy. When Sir Evelake dies after his embrace with Galahad, Galahad is revealed as the chosen one for the Grail Quest. Galahad is made a king who dies shortly thereafter, while Percival becomes a hermit. Bors returns to King Arthur’s court.

Launcelot also returns to the court. Still devoted to Guinevere, he faces a series of trials which convince her of Launcelot’s love for her. Despite Arthur’s knowledge of the affair, he tolerates it. However, Arthur is pressurised by Aggravain and Mordred to take action. Arthur orders to burn Guinevere at the stake. Launcelot intervenes, rescues her, and takes her to his castle, Joyous Gard. In the rescue, Launcelot unintentionally kills Gareth and Gaheris, Sir Gawain’s brothers, who were at the execution but were unarmed. Launcelot returns Guinevere to Arthur, but Launcelot is banished, along with his followers. Gawain, seeking revenge, urges Arthur to attack Launcelot. Arthur agrees, but while Arthur and Gawain are away, Mordred makes himself King of England, claims Guinevere as his wife, and attacks Arthur’s army. Gawain is mortally wounded and warns Arthur in a dream not to continue the battle, but a misunderstanding prolongs the battle. Arthur defeats Mordred but is fatally wounded, fulfilling Merlin’s prophecy.

Shortly thereafter, Launcelot and Guinevere succumb to illness, and Constantine ascends to the throne. The Round Table is disbursed.

Book-wise Summary

Book 1 of Le Morte d’Arthur starts with King Uther Pendragon’s love affair with Igrayne (or Igraine), aided by Merlin, resulting to the birth of Arthur, who later becomes the rightful king by extracting the sword from the stone. This book unfolds early events that shape his reign in Camelot, including alliances, battles, and the sinister (means “suggestive of evil”) prophecy of Mordred’s role in Arthur’s downfall. The narrative progresses as indicated in the summary.

In Book 18, despite his religious experiences while searching for the Holy Grail, Lancelot again resumes his affair with Guinevere. Launcelot tells Guinevere that they should be more reserved, and that he will therefore give attention to other damsels. Guinevere arranges a dinner for the Knights of the Round Table, to give an impression that she does not favour Launcelot above any of them.

Launcelot becomes involved in a tournament in which he disguises himself by wearing a damsel’s token to fight against Arthur. He is injured in the tournament and Guinevere is angered that he wore another’s token. Once he heals, Launcelot involves himself in various other tournaments. Meanwhile, the damsel whose token he wore dies from sorrow because she cannot have Launcelot.

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In Book 19, Guinevere is captured by Sir Meligruant, who is in love with her. Launcelot hears about the kidnapping and frees her, but spares Meligruant’s life. Launcelot enters Guinevere’s chamber to spend the night with her, but cuts his hand while entering her window. Meligruant enters and spies Lancelot’s blood on the queen’s bed. He charges the queen with treason (means “disloyalty”) for being unfaithful to King Arthur. Launcelot defends Guinevere against the charge by fighting and killing Meligruant. The book ends with Launcelot healing the injured knight Urry.

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With Book 20 begins the fall of the Round Table. The conflicts arise when Aggravain catches Lancelot and Guinevere in adultery. Launcelot fights his way out of the situation and, knowing that his actions could lead to civil war, begins to recruit knights to his cause. Meanwhile Mordred informs Arthur of what has been discovered and charges the queen with treason. Guinevere is sentenced to be burned at the stake, but before this can happen Lancelot rescues her. Lancelot and Guinevere go to Joyous Gard, Lancelot’s castle. Arthur arrives at Joyous Gard, and their armies battle. Eventually they receive an order from Church ending the battle and forcing Launcelot to return Guinevere. Launcelot then travels to France pursued by Arthur, who leaves Mordred in charge at home. Gawain and Lancelot battle repeatedly, until Arthur hears news from home that forces him to return.

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Book 21 begins showing Arthur still in France, while Mordred usurps (means “take over”) the throne. He manages to persuade many to take his side, and when Arthur returns home a great battle ensues. Before his death, Gawain writes to Lancelot asking him for help to save Arthur, but before Lancelot can arrive another battle begins. Arthur inflicts a deadly wound on Mordred, but not before receiving one himself.

Near death, Arthur has one of his knights, Bedivere, return Excalibur to the lake where Arthur received it. A mysterious barge (a flat-bottomed boat) filled with fair maidens appears and takes Arthur away by sea. Bedivere arrives at a hermitage, where he moves in to pray over a body that is likely Arthur’s. Meanwhile, Launcelot finally arrives to find that Guinevere has become a nun upon hearing of Arthur’s death. Launcelot himself becomes a monk and dies six years later. The story ends with Sir Constantine of Cornwall being made the new king of England.

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Themes

Courtly Love

There are many instances of courtly love in the narrative. But the story of romantic love and chivalry that grabs our attention most is the story of Launcelot and Guinevere. However, their love is considered adulterous because Guinevere is married to King Arthur. Launcelot’s heroic deeds, introduced later in the story, are noticeably aimed at pleasing the queen. He becomes her favourite because, in all his adventures, Launcelot proves to be brave, honourable, and strong. However, since Launcelot’s actions are driven by a desire to honour and please Guinevere rather than God, he is not allowed to participate in the quest for the Holy Grail.

According to romantic tradition, a knight going to a tournament might also wear a token from a lady he loves. Sir Launcelot wears the token from Elayne of Astalot, but he does it just to hide who he really is. Later, he wears the queen’s token, showing everyone that he loves her.

Another aspect of courtly love is the knight’s rescue of his lady. In the story, Launcelot saves Guinevere again after she is kidnapped by Meligruant. He fights and defeats Meligruant to protect her. However, consequent actions lead to Guinevere being accused of adultery and treason, and she’s sentenced to be burned at stake. Once again, Launcelot rescues her. Unfortunately, these events set off a chain reaction that eventually leads to the downfall of Arthur and the Round Table. The courtly love between Launcelot and Guinevere, instead of being a harmless romantic affair, becomes a crucial factor with significant consequences.

Honour

When Arthur establishes the code for the knights of his Round Table, one important element is honour. The knights owe honour not only to the king but, more significantly, to God. However, many knights struggle with this aspect. Most of their adventures, battles, and tournaments are driven by the desire to honour the king or, more immediately, themselves. Gawain fights for personal and family honour, while Launcelot fights to uphold the queen’s honour. As a result, the majority of knights fail in their quest for the Holy Grail. Only Galahad, Bors, and Percival prioritize the honour of God over personal honour, vanity, and pride. Consequently, these three knights are the only ones permitted to complete the quest for the Grail. Malory places significant emphasis on individual character in his narrative, highlighting how each character’s honourable conduct is a pivotal aspect of the story.

Fate and Destiny

Merlin’s prophecies and magical foresight often foretell ominous (means “threatening” or “sinister”) events, where characters are destined to face death and destruction. These prophecies outline predetermined encounters on battlefields or in tournaments, determining outcomes based on earlier actions for which individuals may seemingly bear no responsibility. For instance, it is foretold that Arthur and the Round Table will meet their end at the hands of his own son, Mordred. Another example is the predetermined burial site of Launcelot becoming the battleground for a destined clash between Launcelot and Tristram, two knights bound by love yet fated to fight. Apparently, this destiny is not ascribed to divine or spiritual forces but rather attributed to characters within the narrative. Both Merlin and the Lady of the Lake serve as agents of fate, manipulating characters and events to fulfil the foreseen destiny they predict. However, at the same time, the consequences of characters’ actions or decisions are often the result of what they chose at the faces of moral dilemmas.

Revenge

The narrative is heavily focused on the idea of revenge with individual characters seeking revenge for perceived wrongs. For example, when Pellanor kills King Lot, King Lot’s son, Gawain avenges the death of his father by later killing Pellanor. Similarly, it is Gawain’s insistence that his brothers be avenged that leads to the destruction of the Round Table. Gawain’s motif of revenge makes him and Arthur to leave Camelot and Guinevere unattended and Mordred captures them both. If Gawain had not sought blood revenge, the destructive battle in which both of them are destroyed might have been avoided. Ultimately, the pervasive theme of revenge, especially familial blood revenge, permeates the narrative and leads to the destruction of all that Arthur had created.